The findings for edible wild plants were collected in seven of the eight districts of the Ağrı province, namely, Diyadin, Doğubayazıt, Eleşkirt, Hamur, Patnos, Taşlıçay and Tutak (Fig. 1), a region with an old traditional background in the consumption of these plant species. The Ağrı province is situated in eastern Anatolia Region of Turkey between the latitudes 38˚59’–40˚02’N and longitudes 42˚15’–44˚36’E. It covers a total land area of 11,520 km² with a human population estimated at about 540,000. The climate in central districts is generally continental. According to the data from meteorological stations (Ağrı, Doğubayazıt and Patnos), which perform long term observations in Ağrı (1960–2012), the annual average temperatures of the province vary between 6.2^oC and 9.2^oC. The temperature in Ağrı may rise to 39.9°C in August and go down to -45.6°C in January. The number of frosty days is 160.7 days, and mean annual rainfall is 521.8 mm/yr.

One village of each district was selected for an exhaustive biodiversity inventory based on their altitude and vegetation cover (Fig. 1). The spatial extent of the villages is highly variable and so the villages were determined with help of Development Agents and agricultural specialists in study areas. In each village, we started by inventorying these plant species. Five different villages in each district of the study area were visited for the ethnobotanical interviews (for all 7 districts = in total 35 villages or small towns).

The study was carried out between 2014 and 2015 (from April to October). We carried out fieldwork to elaborate the inventory about wild edible plants, and also interviewed native elders who were familiar with these plants. Data were collected through open in-depth interviews with local elders (Martin 2014). Elderly and experienced people who lived in this region for many years and who knew the plants very well were favoured. Older women were preferred since they are more knowledgeable about edible wild plants than men. Ten informants were interviewed in each village and therefore 350 informants (7*5*10 = 350) were recruited (290 female, 60 male; average age 65).

We asked native elders to list all the wild food plants of the region and, for each wild edible plant species listed, to indicate all relevant knowledge about its consumption and gathering: present and past use, processing techniques and mode of consumption. Knowledge regarding wild edible plants was categorized according to Kadıoğlu & al. (2016): Turkish vernacular name, part of the plant used (whole plant, leaf, stem, shoot, root, tuber, exudates, flower, seed and fruit), traditional preparation for consumption and consumption time. Wild food plant uses were organized under seven food use-categories: vegetables (including the subcategories cooked, raw, and pickles), spices, beverages, seeds, fruits, exudates and subterranean parts.

The identifications of the reported wild edible plants are based on Davis & al. (1988) and Davis (1965–1985). Identifications were made by the Prof. Dr. Ali Kandemir. Two specimens of each wild edible plant species accompanied by detailed information on the collection locality, the characteristics of the plant, vernacular names, native culinary uses, and wild edible plants meanings were deposited in the herbarium of the Turkey Seed Gene Bank (Ankara) center and the Erzincan Horticultural Research Institute.

The Cultural Importance (CI) index (Tardío & Pardo-de-Santayana 2008) was used to express the importance of the studied species:

where N is the total number of informants interviewed in the survey (350) and UR is the number of informants that -mention each use-category for the species. For example, in the case of Anthriscus sylvestris (L.) Hoffm., 31 informants mentioned its use as a cooked vegetable, 48 as a raw vegetable, 61 as pickles, 14 as spice. Therefore, CI = (31+48+61+14)/350 = 0.44.

We also calculated the total CI of each use-category, adding the CI of all the species included in each category and the average CI of the category dividing the total CI of the category between the number of species reported for the category. For example, there are three species in the use-category seeds (Cephalaria syriaca (L.) Schrad., Gundelia tournefortii L., and Vicia cracca L.). As these uses were mentioned by 46, 35 and nine people, respectively, their CI as seed was 0.13, 0.10 and 0.03. The total CI of seeds was 0.26, the result of adding 0.13, 0.10 and 0.03 and the average CI of seeds was 0.09, 0.26 divided by three, i.e. the number of species of the use-category seeds.

The most diverse use-category, with 91 species, was clearly vegetables. The high global CI of the category (42.84) and its high average (0.47) indicate that they are also the most widely used. As in previous studies, our results confirm the high diversity and intensive use of wild vegetables in east Turkey (Özgen & Kaya 2004; Özgökçe & Özçelik 2004; Kırbağ & Zengin 2006; Akan & al. 2008; Cakilcioglu & Turkoglu 2010; Çakılcıoğlu & al. 2010; Kadıoğlu & al. 2016, 2020).

Many of these vegetables are rich in valuable nutrients. For instance, Malva neglecta, eaten cooked or raw, is rich in vitamins A, B and C (Yeşil & al. 2019). It has substantial local value as a vegetable (CI cooked: 0.8 and CI raw 0.11) both in bordering countries and Turkey (Yeşil & Akalın 2010; Pieroni & al. 2017; Yeşil & al. 2019). As in the other parts of Turkey and in bordering countries, roots, young stems and petioles of Gundelia tournefortii, a good source of vitamins A, C and E are consumed cooked or raw in the study region (Şimşek & al. 2004; Yeşil & Akalın 2010; Karaaslan & al. 2014; Ahmad & al. 2015; Pieroni & al. 2017; Yeşil & al. 2019).

Most species are gathered in spring (mainly May and June), although there are also species that can be gathered earlier (e.g., Crocus biflorus subsp. tauri young leaves are consumed in March and April), later (e.g., Rheum ribes flower stems are eaten in July) or even all year round (e.g., Stachys lavandulifolia Vahl., Ziziphora clinopodioides Lam.). The plant parts most commonly used are young leaves and shoots. They are usually eaten fresh, mainly cooked (61 species), or raw (48). Besides nine species are preserved in pickles. The use-category cooked vegetables is clearly the most important (total CI 28.3, average CI 0.46). For instance, five of the species with the highest CI values are only consumed cooked (i.e., Amaranthus retroflexus, Beta trigyna Walds. & Kit., Polygonum persicaria, Tragopogon porrifolius subsp. longirostris (Sch. Bip.) Greuter). The tops of the shoots, leaves and shoots are eaten cooked, stirred with olive oil and fried in oil with chili or garlic and different spices mixed with other wild vegetables.

An interesting group of cooked vegetables are those used to prepare dolma, an important component of Turkish cuisine inherited from the Ottomans. Dolma consists of stuffed vegetables like eggplant or stuffed peppers. They are usually stuffed with rice, meat and bulgur (chopped wheat). Big leaves of Heracleum trachyloma Fısch. & C.Mey, Plantago major L., several Rumex species (R. alpinus L., R. crispus L., R. obtusifolius L. subsp. subalpinus (Schur) Celak., R. patientia), and Salvia verticillata L. subsp. verticillata are also used for wraping dolma. Besides, young leaves of Eremurus spectabilis are used in stews that are added to the filling of dolma.

There are also species that are both eaten cooked and raw (e.g., Scorzonera mollis subsp. szowitzii, Tragopogon aureus Boiss.). Besides a very important number of species are only eaten raw, being Rumex scutatus the species with highest CI (0.97). Some of them are brought home to prepare salads (e.g., Portulaca oleracea L., Rumex scutatus, Teucrium chamaedrys L.) and others are consumed without any preparation. For instance, the fresh leaves of Allium kharputense Freyn & Sint., Allium gramineum K.Koch (Körmen, Sir, Sirim), Arctium tomentosum Mill., Caltha palustris, Plantago major, Rumex crispus, Rumex obtusifolius subsp. subalpinus, Rumex patientia, and Xanthogalum purpurascens Lallem. are consumed raw at home. On the other hand, the fresh leaves and fresh shoots of other species are consumed raw in the field (e.g., Allium atroviolaceum Boiss., Anthriscus nemorosa (M.Bieb) Spreng., Carduus nutans L., Heracleum trachyloma, Hylotelephium telephium (L.) H.Ohba, Onopordum acanthium L., Rheum ribes, Scorzonera cana (C.A.Meyer) Griseb. var. jacquiniana (W.Koch) D.F.Chamb., Scorzonera mollis subsp szowitzii, Sempervivum minus Turril ex Wale., Tragopogon aureus, and Tragopogon dubius Scop.).

Besides leaves and young shoots, flowers are also consumed. This is the case of the young flowers of Iris persica, that are valued for their mild taste. Interestingly, they are known as the heralds of the arrival of spring (Yeşil & al. 2019). Other interesting species is Echinops pungens Trautv. which immature receptacle of the inflorescences are consumed in a similar way as the heart of the artichokes.

The other important category of vegetables are those used to elaborate pickles. While only nine species are used, its average CI is high (0.32). Their shoots are placed in a sterilized jar along with salt, as well as spices, and are then allowed to mature until the desired taste is obtained. In general, tartness has a very important place in making pickles for people in the region, as the tart taste of these plants is perceived as a special flavor in the sense of “a different taste” and “good for the food”. For instance, Ferula orientalis L. and Prangos platychlaena Boiss. are especially valuable for the inhabitants of the Ağrı region and their taste is described as “tart or sour” (Heliz or Çakşur in Ağrı). While Ferula orientalis (0.75) and Prangos platychlaena (0.78) are culturally important species in the study region, their usage is not very common in other areas of Turkey (Kadıoğlu & al. 2016, 2020).

Taste has an important place in the selection of wild edibles for local communities and people pay attention to collect tart/sour wild edible plant species to obtain a balanced taste of the meals. On the other hand, the taste of plants or foods is often an important criterion for categorizing, characterizing and detecting food plants (Johns 1986; Nebel 2001; Grivetti 1981).

Plants used for seasoning food are also commonly used. Nineteen species with a total CI of 5.38 and an average CI of 0.28 were reported, being Mentha longifolia L. (CI = 0.89), Thymus sipyleus Boiss. (0.63) and Ziziphora clinopodioides Lam. (0.58) the species with highest CI. These species are used freshly in salads called Turkish Shepherd’s Salad, Rezepte, Mamzana. Additionally, dried parts of them are cooked and consumed in yogurt soups such as Turkish Yogurt Soup. Many of them are members of the Lamiaceae family and are also consumed raw and to prepare herbal teas (e.g., Nepeta italica L., Satureja hortensis L.). An interesting group of six species are used to flavor cheese, mainly Allium species and several Apiaceae (e.g., Anthriscus sylvestris, Chaerophyllum bulbosum L.).

In the studied region, 16 taxa were used for preparing herbal teas, being Alyssum peltarioides Boiss the most cited species (0.49). All their parts are consumed as a tea, but also as salad and spice. Another widely consumed beverage is the sherbet (diluted syrups produced with the addition of sugar) made from the flowers of Papaver argemone L. (0.3). Young shoots and leaves of Hypericum perfoliatum L. (0.23), Mentha longifolia L. (0.06), Nepeta racemosa Lam. (0.03), Nepeta italica L. (0.07), Rosa pimpinellifolia L. (0.18), Salvia multicaulis Vahl. (0.03), Satureja hortensis L. (0.28), Stachys lavandulifolia Vahl. (0.04), Thymus kotschyanus (0.07), Thymus pubescens Boiss. & Kotschy ex Celak. (0.11), Thymus sipyleus (0.06), and Ziziphora clinopodioides Lam. (0.03) are also used as herbal teas as in other Turkish regions (Özgen & Kaya 2004; Özgökçe & Özçelik 2004; Kırbağ & Zengin 2006; Akan & al. 2008; Kadıoğlu & al. 2016, 2020). Another interesting common beverage in Ağrı, also previously cited, is the herbal tea prepared with flowers of Iris persica (0.06) (Akgül & al. 2018).

Roots and tubers from five species are eaten in the region, being Arctium tomentosum the most cited (0.66). Its root collar is peeled and consumed raw. The roots of two thistles (Cirsium rhizocephalum C.A Mey., 0.26; Onopordum acanthium, 0.21) are consumed after cooking and the roots of Lathyrus tuberosus L. (0.06) and the corms (bulbiferous tubers) of Crocus biflorus subsp. tauri (0.27) raw.

The fruits of three taxa, including Lathyrus tuberosus L. (0.27), Rosa pimpinellifolia L. (0.37), and Rubus idaeus L. (0.87) are consumed raw. The fruits of Rosa pimpinellifolia are especially known for their effectiveness in colds and for strengthening the body’s defenses against infection (Baytop 1999). Furthermore, fruits of Rosa pimpinellifolia are rich in minerals (C, P, A), vitamins (B1, B2, E, K), organic acids, sugar, tannins, pectin, essential oils (Demir & Özcan 2001; Mehmet & al. 2018). In addition, Rubus idaeus L. fruits are used to elaborate jams and the leaves of Rosa pimpinellifolia are dried and used to prepare a drink.

The use-category seeds includes three species. From our knowledge, Cephalaria syriaca (0.1) has been recorded as edible in the present study for the first time. The seeds are ground and used for making bread mixed with wheat flour. Gundelia tournefortii seeds (0.13) are cooked and consumed as grain/kernel substitutes. The seeds of the plant are dried with a paper towel and placed in a bowl. Then olive oil and salt are added. It is spread on a baking sheet and baked for 5–10 minutes until browned and crispy. Given their lipid content they have been studied as a source of edible oil (Khanzadeh & al. 2012). Finally, Vicia cracca raw seeds are eaten as in southeastern Turkey (Yeşil & al. 2019).

In the study area, the latex of Gundelia tournefortii (0.25) roots and Scorzonera latifolia (Fisch. & C. A. Mey.) DC. (0.07) shoots are used to prepare chewing gum. These findings are similar to our previous results (Kadıoğlu & al. 2016, 2020).

A very rich number of plant names was obtained. Local phytonyme of wild edibles consisted in 157 local names, 145 simple (e.g., söğütotu, kuşekmeği) and 12 complex names (e.g., yabani sakız, yer çileği) (Appendix 1). The average number of names by species was 2.13, having most species one, two or three names (35, 29 and 25 species respectively). Generic names that are used for several species were also common. For instance kımı and mendek were applied to three different morphologically similar Apiaceae species (Anthriscus sylvestris, Chaerophyllum bulbosum, Ch. crinitum Boiss.), and kekik to four Lamiaceae species (Thymus kotschyanus, Thymus pubescens, Thymus sipyleus, Ziziphora clinopodioides).

The language of the vast majority of the wild edible plant species names recorded is Turkish (e.g., evelik, Rumex crispus, Rumex patientia; tirşo, Rumex scutatus, Rumex tuberosus subsp. horizontalis; işgın, Rheum ribes; isırgan, Urtica dioica L.; çiriş, Eremurus spectabilis M. Bieb.). Kurdish is also spoken in the area and four Kurdish names were mentioned: tirşo, Rumex crispus, Rumex patientia, Rumex scutatus, Rumex tuberosus subsp. horizontalis; silgok, Beta trigyna, Beta lomatogona Fisch. & C.A. Mey.; sirim, Allium sp., Allium atroviolaceum, Allium gramineum; silmask, Chenopodium album subsp. album).

The wild edible plant species utilized in Ağrı are called by the same or very similar local names in different regions of Anatolia (e.g., Mentha longifolia, yarpuz; Gundelia tournefortii, kenger, Malva neglecta, ebegümeci; Polygonum cognatum, madımak; Rheum ribes, işkın; Urtica dioica, isırgan; Rumex scutatus, ekşime; Rumex crispus L., evelik; Eryngium billardierei F.Delaroche, boğa dikeni) (Yücel & Tülükoğlu 2000; Sarper & al. 2009; Arı & al. 2015; Çakilcioglu & Turkoglu 2010). This similarity reflects a wide sharing of ethnobotanical knowledge in the region.

There are also plants whose local names in Ağrı are different from other areas of Turkey (e.g., Silene vulgaris var. vulgaris, cıvrıncık, gelin parmağı; Capsella bursa-pastoris, çoban çantası; Ononis spinosa L., kayışkıran; Salvia multicaulis, adaçayı; Teucrium chamaedrys, mayasılotu; Teucrium polium L., ülper yavşanı, acı ot; Papaver rhoeas L., gelincik; Rumex scutatus, kuzukulağı; Portulaca oleracea, semizotu, temizlik out; Chenopodium album subsp. album, sarı sirken; Beta trigyna, kır ıspanağı; Rumex patientia, ilibada; Polygonum cognatum, çoban ekmeği; Urtica dioica, gezgezik; Echium vulgare L., sormuk) (Çakilcioglu & Turkoglu 2010; Arı & al. 2015). This situation could be due to the changing demographics of the young population or domestic people, i.e. residents who migrated to different provinces were replaced by migrants from different cities of Turkey. Hence, the regional people pattern changed progressively and finally such a situation modified the regional population culture.

Additionally, because villagers in the local community are usually migrating to large cities or towns and benefiting from the facilities of modern agriculture or different food products, the heritage of traditional wild edible plant species information is decreasing dramatically. Moreover, the younger generation in the local community tends to migrate to large cities in an effort to earn more money and find steady jobs. Consequently, villages in the region are rapidly emptying of their new generations or young population and such a situation raises the danger of losing regional knowledge about wild edible plant species.

The results of our work indicate a very rich ethnobotanical knowledge about wild edible plant species in rural areas of Ağrı. It is vital to document local usages as food through further studies before it is too late. Some of the wild edible plant species of Ağrı are endangered by over grazing, use of chemical herbicides in farming, inattentive picking of edible wild plant species to generate revenue, and expansion of new agricultural lands. Given the nutritional interest of many of these species, the documented data could be used as baseline information for further investigations on nutritional contents, as they could have the potential to become valuable nutrition sources for people. These uses could help to promote the sustainable development of the area, once inappropriate gathering techniques are excluded.